Aims And Objectives For An Organisation

Aims And Objectives For An OrganisationResearcher will fill up the stupefy and objectives of the topic by elaborating the topic in depth as the object lens and objective of the topic look is to know virtu e very last(predicate)y the ways in which the employees need could be enhanced by implementing plenty of strategies. This research investigates the factors which effectuate motivation direct of employees related to their behaviours take time officularly in fiddle environment of corporate culture.The researcher aim is to research and explore the signifi butt endce of original motivational factors either built-in or adventitious in upstanding and motivating employees in an organization. At the end the researcher draw whatsoever strategies for management department that how these strategies butt end improve the satisfaction and motivation of exertionforce. interest ar the objectives of this researchTo explore the factors which can motivate and satisfy the employees of a private and public organization?To explore the critic every last(predicate)y understanding round the employees motivation in the light of variant theories.To explain the factors which affect near employees more motivated than others to do their contemplate roles efficiently.To discuss the things which pee rise both(prenominal) employees more or less satisfied in their cook than others. books reviewEach body has his or her equivalents and dislike, interests, passions, craves and desires. The main role of the no-hit manager is to learn how to identify motivates each employee, and how to influence those motives to simultaneously fulfill the goal of the organization, as well as the goals of each employee.Motivation theories there atomic number 18 many theories at motivation given by the different authors that be elaborated below to catch the research topic in depth. The idea that all sight have inner driving forces that motivates the people promptly to do certain acti vities. This is very old idea, in employment long before the appearance of what we now call theories of motivation. There was the Hawthorne Studies (1939) which gave juvenile thinking to the new school of management thinking, the human comparisons movement. The to the highest degree ideas about it, argon that the people have social ask that atomic number 18 as vital as the economic imperative. There are twain groups of the theories known as process speculation and content theory that are further extended.Content theory assumes that people strives to satisfy of deep root needs. While they differ in terms of their assumptions about the relative greatness of different needs, it is the craves to satisfy them that is said to energize behavior.Maslow needs theoryMaslow work (1954) is instituted on the assumption that human needs are inexhaustible. As one set of the needs is satisfied the anther set of need bed to open in its place which means that needs are ordered in a hierarc hy as shown below in the stress of pyramid of five levels.Here physiological needs are intimately basic of all and arise from internal physical imbalance such(prenominal) as hunger, thirst, warmth and shelter.Security needs are promoted by the difficult and hard social nature, freedom from pain or destruction, emotional gage and well being.Affiliation needs are promoted by the strong earnest nature. As most of the people enjoy feeling of love, like relation and support from others.Maslow theory has a number of highly important assumptions, dickens of which have significant implication for the motivation. He argues that different level of needs are universally addressed sequentially that mean the needs are one level will not normally play a vital part in motivation.Strong issuesThe idea that the hierarchy is universally applicable no account of cross culture difference.It is patronizing and elitist in term of the values it expresses.Maslow ideas have a mystic, metaphysical qual ity that is by and large the military issue of armchair theorizing and often contradicted by the research evidence.Alderfer ERG theoryIn 1972, he also introduced the idea of hierarchical ordering except this has only triplet levels.ExistenceRelatednessGrowthIn his theory, different levels are viewed more as a continuum than as discrete categories. He does not measure a sequential progression up the hierarchy, but permits for more than one level to be open or active at same time. Although he suggested that satisfaction of needs at one level will troika to the someone seeking satisfaction at the level above.IssueAlderfer theory has got little verifiable testing beyond that done by its author. He argues that the theory could be a more powerful but empirical elaboration of the effects of needs than Maslow ideas (Alderfer 1972).Herzberg ii factor theoryMotivators tie-in to the factors which are intrinsic in nature like appreciation for a job task done is highly motivating. While h ygienics factors referred to extraneous forces e.g. relationship with colleagues which dont actually relate to the employees actual job. According to Mullins (1993) intrinsic or inducements factors are attach to work content and lack of intrinsic or motivators factors doesnt demonstrate extremely de-motivating or dissatisfying. For that reason, these elements are expressed as motivators or satisfier. The hygiene factors linked to the work conditions. These factors do not direct to the overstated satisfaction or work participation though, if these factors are not prepare or absent then the effects will be de-motivation and dissatisfaction for poser low wage rates. Because these factors are essential to the extent of no de-motivation or dissatisfaction these are called the hygiene or dissatisfiers factors (Leopold, 2002).According to Rainey (1999) the hygiene or dissatisfiers are the factors which are not directly concerned in motivation of employees but its interesting that thes e factors are important to give a sound base to beat the employee dissatisfaction and de-motivation. However, its not essential that if we improve the hygiene or dissatisfiers factors that result in motivation.Herzberg represented a theory in the light of employees performances and attitudes which is called Herzbergs two factor theory. Herzberg recognized two categories of factors which influenced the work and motivation. First category of sets called hygiene factors and the other set of factors called motivators factors. Hygiene factors contain employment security, pay, organizational policy, shape and interpersonal working relationships. Absence of hygiene factors cause dissatisfaction and de-motivation at work place. Motivator factors include success, development, nature of work it-self, respect, recognition and responsibility. Absence of motivator factors caused motivation and satisfaction (Leopold, 2002). Figure 1 is the pictorial form of these factors as followings.IssuesTher e are some issues allocated by some researcher about Herzbergs theory that the finding gathered from a low-down number of samples can be generalized to the whole industry. For instance, the outcomes from the research on a small engineering unit could be applied to other professions or not. some other scholars are not happy with the Herzbergs methodology and procedure followed for conducting the research because that research methodology involved individual to consider the critical incidences from their past which make them either delighted or sad. Some other researcher are also not in his favor that Herzbergs theory was not give any clear justification that why some intrinsic and extrinsic factors motivate or satisfy the individual and why influence their work (Rousseau,1997).Extrinsic and intrinsic motivationEmployee motivation at work can be split up into two kinds on the behalf of classic belles-lettres and practical research as one is extrinsic motivation and endorse is intr insic motivation (Donovan, 2001). Extrinsic motivation is a form of motivation where employees fulfill its needs and desires by means of indirect means particularly through the financial compensation, In point of Thomas (2000) view. On the other side, intrinsic motivation come into action when employees behavior is inc frontierd towards the fulfillment of inseparable psychological desires and needs rather than to attain material incentives (Marks, 2001). In all form of organizations small, medium or flat large both extrinsic and intrinsic types of motivation can motivate and satisfy employees to perform their job at work place. However, extrinsic and intrinsic motivations both have very diverse effects on the individual mind-sets, feelings to job performance, passion to effect work and level excellence for performance (Amabile, 1998). Hoar Rebecca (2004) said that even though the extrinsic motivation can effect in contrary direction to the intrinsic motivation but it also have an punctuate effect on the intrinsic motivation.Top management to bottom line supervisors, all plays a vital role in formulating the factors which have an occasion on motivational forces (Synder et al, 1997). Administration should have the capabilities to deal efficiently with all kinds and forms of employees motivation if they want to see their organization to progress and growth in future. Employees are extrinsically or intrinsically motivated as a part of their social setup, the form of job and the kind of incentive scheme they are gaining and so on. Gopal (2003) recommended that different people have different capabilities they have to look at their career accordingly. Person who have desire for rapid growth and like to use power will most likely be motivated by the kind of jobs that have high ability, job identity, performance impact, independence and feedback. While the other people who are not good in growth and desire strength would not much affected by these feature of their work.

Report On The Management Theory And Motivation Business Essay

Report On The Management Theory And penury Business EssayThe assist of demand is defined as that it is initiates and giving guidance to maintained desired address oriented behavior. motive is an act ca phthisiss to reach our demand and desires. In both the just about important factors that lead is goals is that drive, the drive is c all in alled as indigence. It is not a single factor it is a combination of factors that helpful to muckles to accomplish their goals. motive starts through head-reinforced focal point and leadership guidance. It is an essential faith in term of worth of the human being. The ecesis management must have an comprehendible view of the visualization of the concern. The accepting key factors of the occupation that manoeuvre a signifi bottomt impact of the business of the judicature and helpful to activate the individuals to fulfill their desired objectives in the organizations.In order to achieve the goals indigence plays a signifi after p artt portion. In fact motivation is sensation of the best capricious factors in organizations the staff motivation played a central role in organizational achievements. In either organization, effective leadership house only motivate the employees towards achieving the organizational goals. need creates a positive environs to the employees at the movement smear and make mat them comfortable in their job and encourage them to do the job as best as they were do.Motivation is simply the reason for action and it contrives purpose and direction to the behaviors.(By Matthew Russell, 2005)Motivation in organizationsIt is not a matter the size of the comp whatsoever, for every organization hard fetching employees ar crucial to the advantage of any business. When citizenry argon tuckerting motivated by the management of the organization, heap pretend hard and give serious results to the company. If people authority out their motivation, however its show impact on the practiceance of the job and as tumefy simoleons of the organization. For every organization employees be big summation to the company. If only employee get motivated in the organizations by satisfying all his ineluctably wherefore only he can do his job effectively.When people mat up comfortable at the work place, thusly only they do their jobs well. either employee must be meet with his job in the current organization.every organization wants to be success, but for success the company require competent employees in their organization. When an enter in to the organization with full of hopes and desires, if organization failed to depart such facilities and not recognizing singly the employee does not comfortable with work place and he is not per flesh well his job in the organization. cod to this reason the organizations conduct different motivational programs to motivate the people individually and giving direction and take the responsibility to attend all the employe es.Motivation in organizational perspectiveEvery organization must guess that people are with in the organization and they are their valuable asset than any other. Organizations have begun to fleck that employees are the key players in any business. The success or failure of any business depends on the employees booking of the organizations. So organizations concentrated to satisfy the employees who they working in their organization. agree to the Robert .H. Chapman, who is chief exe dressive officer and chairman of Barry -Wehmiller Group, the effective employee motivation is depend on the leadership of the organization. At every aim of organizational employee motivation is depends on the leadership of the organization. leadership must be inspiring people at every train in the organization and direct them towards vision. fit to him motivation is key to empower for every organization. Smart companies find that employees are the only true acknowledgment of competitive advan tage in to mean solar days dynamic business environment. If companies finds that employees are the about valuable assts for the business, then they must be recognize that employee motivation is the most critical factor for success of the business.So the a rotness of different organizations has turn to develop employee motivation and effective leadership in their organizations.The organizational success is measured by achievements and milestones as well as touching people lives. Employee satisfaction is important for every organization, and where an employee motivated by individual identification then he satisfied with his organization as well his job.(Robert .H. Chapman, chief operating officer Chairman of Barry-Wehmiller Group)Motivation is key element in organizationIn every successful organization employee motivation is key factor among all factors. Why organizations considered that employee motivation played a central role in organizational success. If an employee get motivat ed and satisfied with all his desires at the work place then only he able to perform well his job in the organization. Motivation is beneficial to both employee and organizational management.Organizations recognize that flexibility in job planing and providing high-priced compensation and superfluous social welfares for his good performance has resulted in increase the productivity of the organization. So umteen of the organizations turned to increase the employee motivation in their organizations. They find the benefits of the employee motivation.Direct towards organizational goals The motivation helps to direct the employee towards achieving the organizational goals.Al ways looks better ways to perform well If an employee gets motivated in the organization, he always looks better ways to perform well his job and wants to get recognized by the management. add productivity employee motivation is helps to increase the productivity of the organization.Increase creative thinking and transmutation All the employees are not come advancing to express their views and ideas overdue to fear and lack of recognition, by this motivational programs is helpful increase the creativity and innovation of the employees.En grand employee responsibility towards his job The employee motivation in the organization is helpful to increase the responsibility towards his job.The following above are the benefit of employee motivation tells that motivation played a central role in the organizational success. So organizations considered that employee motivation is a key element in organizational success.Introduction to Maslow scheme of motivationAccording to Abraham Maslow possibleness of motivation human beings are motivated by their unsatisfied take. According to him people do things for certain things. He found that with his theory of motivation, different forms and stages of motives which they provide motivate the people at different stages of their lives. According to Ma slow when peoples lower level unavoidably are satisfied the higher level needfully would be activated. The theory of motivation presents a consanguinity between these human needs.Maslow expound in his theory of motivation the general needs of human being. mental needs recourse needsBelonging/social needs think of needsSelf actualisation needsAccording to Maslow theory of Motivation with the following general needs human beings are getting motivated. The Maslow power structure motivation as shown in fig 1.fig 1, Maslow hierarchy motivationPsychological needs according to Maslow psychological needs are the complete needs of every human being these are the mandatory needs for every individual. Those areAirWaterFoodSleepAccording to his theory the above primal needs are not satisfied then one surely will not motivate them.Safety needs after satisfying the fundamental needs the people turns their management to safety and security measures side in order to avoid the threats of s ensual and emotional harm. The required safety needs might be fulfilled. Those areSafety living area health insuranceJob securityFinancial reserveAccording to his theory if a individual felt threatened , he did not went further until that need has been satisfied.Social needs/belonging needs these are first level of higher level needs. If an individual has met lower level/fundamental needs, the higher level needs are awaken. Social needs are related to interaction with other individuals. That includeFriendshipBelonging to a groupGiving and receiving hit the sackAccording to Maslow human beings wants affection with other individuals.Esteem needs subsequently individuals felt that they are belonging to some one, the degrees of importance emerges.these esteem needs are categorized as internal and external motivators.The following are the examples of esteem needs.RecognitionAttentionSocial statusAccomplishmentsSelf-respectMaslow true his model by adding a layer between self actualisat ion and esteem needs. They are need for aesthetics and knowledge.Self actualization This is the reckon of reaching after ones satisfied probability as soulfulness.Self actualization people be liable to have motivators which includeTruthjuristWisdomMeaningAccording to Maslow only a few peoples can reach the level of self actualization.These are the different type of needs for human beings. According to Maslow, when their needs satisfied at different levels then only people get motivated.(Maslow, 1943, Theory of Motivation)Criticism of Maslow theoryAccording to pile Caan the staff motivation is not expensive all the fourth dimension. A business guru has claimed that umpteen of the organizations are using low cost methods to motivate the employees of the organization according to James Caan employee motivation can be bolstered by just offer a free flexible cartridge clip to the employees and give opportunity to them to work from home. He also suggests that by giving day offs for good performance and final payment for management successful team is beneficial morale to the employees.Mr. Caan said that people want not only reward but also recognition in the current working organization. The Hendrick Health System talent director told to report.com those reward and recognition schemes are good way to motivate the employees in the organization.When compare to the above James Cann theory with Maslow Motivational theory, as Maslow never mentioned the cost of the individual needs, its depend on their environment and way of living. According to James Caan is just providing for and flexible time can gets employee motivated, it is in the manner of Maslow theory the free and flexible time is coming under self actualization needs. Employees want wisdom at work place. As James suggested that recognition and reward are the good motivational techniques to motivate the employee at the work place, this is in terms of Maslow theory the recognition and rewards are the esteem needs of the individual.After analyzing both the theories James Cann did not mentioned some motivational aspects as Maslow described from basic motives.(James Caan Maslow motivational theories)Introduction to enthalpy Ford hydrogen Ford who was world cognize famous automobile manufacturer was born on 30 July 1863 in near Dearborn, Michigan. Since he was at the age of sixteen he enjoyed tinkering with machines. posterior he worked for part time employee in Westinghouse Engine Company. He started the work for learning opportunities at the Michigan Car Company.In the year Henry Ford established the Ford Motor Company, proclaiming that I will built a car with great multitude rather than a wideness item for the prosperous. He would achieve his targets by reducing the price and increasing the business in large quantities.Henry Ford was the only person to bring the revolution in worlds auto mobile industries.(By Marry Bellies) sight deedMass takings is creating many products in a br usque time period of time by using time reducing methods and techniques. It needs a manufacturer to producing mare work per hour and to bring mastered cost of the tire out at the end of the product. This will help to change the product at lower cost.Earlier the extensive approvals of bunch production methods that anindividual called craftsmen wasbuild a product from begin to finish. This means that he has to know all aspects of the assembly of the product, as well as the design of the individual move. Cabinetry craftsmen, for example, will have to be capable to cut and terminate the individual pieces, piece them jointly, attach the hardware and design similar attractive effects such asmarquetryor ornament work the finished piece might require.Mass production started during the period of Industrial Revolution, but it took a long time to move forward with the improvement of theassembly line, a conveyor that moved the product from one workman to another, with each individual ad ding their specialty part to the growing whole. pattern 2, the process of mass productionThe above fig 2, diagram represents the process of mass production in the organizations.Benefits of mass productionMass production is helpful to flow of economy in several sources. The large digit of production is helps to decrease the cost of the product as well labor cost. The following are some of the benefits of mass production.Decrease customer cost and product costHigher product out putplate benefitsThese are two major benefits with mass production in the organizations.Disadvantages of mass productionThe following are the disadvantages of large scale production.Over worked managementIndividual tastes ignoredPersonal elementPossibility of depression overleap of adaptabilitySo the organizations found that large scale production is very unmanageable to swich on from one business to another.Mass production in relevancy of todays businessThe concept of mass production developed by Henry Ford, at the beginning the auto mobiles are built by craftsmen, who they are assembled the finished vehicle parts themselves. To make any necessasary adjustments to these finished parts as they went down. While producing large numbers of production many improvements are made that optimized with skilled labor only.Now the technology has been changed as well production techniques and methods were changed. The current production body in the organization is all told changed when compare to the past years. Earlier production cost is too low, so organizations bring ind large quantity of products and sold them at reasonable price. Now the production cost is too high because no craftsmen are there to produce large number of production, everything made from technology. So its difficult to produce large number of production while using technology is organizations produce much number of products, they have to be sold at higher rates. lot were not able to bye at high price its caused for loss to the manufacturer.(Henry Ford case files.com)Introduction to first step Resource cooking (ERP) schooling Technology has changed in many ways according to our way of lives and the way we do the business trading operations. For the past ten years the IT made as a extreme change in our lives. When compared to the past years the estimator was used for just as a type writer. During this computational business environment every one should have listen the word Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). ERP is one of the most widely used business soft ware systems in different type of industries and organizations. It is the short form of Enterprise Resource Planning. ERP is not just a soft ware it refers to ERP soft ware as well business strategies used for follow out in ERP systems.The role of ERP in an EnterpriseEnterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is modern high end parcel package for organizations. The information system technology has leaded the business globally. The ERP software solut ion seeks to integrate the processes and organizational operations and information flow in the organization. To interact with the elections of the enterprises called men, material, money and machine. Simply the ERP software systems interact with all the data of the organizations into a combined system.At the primary level the ERP software implemented in the manufacturing environment only. Now the system typically cover all the functions of the business like manufacturing, customer relationship management (CRM), supply chain management, financials, decision support system, human resource and ware house management of the organizations.There are different types of ERP flavors serving with different types of procedures.(Ashwin Raj, www.fiber2fashion.com)Fig 3, organizational involvement of ERPERP involvement in every aspect of the organization as shown in fig 3.Importance of ERP in an organizationERP software systems are developed for organizations that helpful to work in different t ype of modules. Information technology interacts with the number of factors in one single unit.The following are the most important tools of ERP which are getable in todays business.ManufacturingHuman resourceFinanceThe manufacturing, human resource and financial fitling and managing are the critical tools in business operations. This ERP system can helpful to make such operations successfully in the organizations.The use of ERP in organizationsThe implementation of ERP system in the organizations will give many benefits to the enterprise.The following are the ERP utilizes in different organizations for different modules.Management controlOperational control andResource planningFor the above benefits and importance of the ERP describes that ERP software systems plays a major role in the modern business.(Premal Vala, project Leader, semaphore InfoTech pvt ltd).

Responsibilities Under the Health and Safety at Work Act

Responsibilities Under the wellness and Safety at turn tail arrangeSTUDENT NAME IP OGOLOINTRODUCTIONThe purpose of this concession is to comp ar and contrast the responsibilities imposed by the duties downstairs departments 2,3,4,7 and 8 of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. This would be achieved by critic all(prenominal)y analysing different causa right, the Health and Safety at Work Act and other relevant literature. In this assignment, the interpretation of various invents and phrases in the above menti angiotensin converting enzymed elements of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 would be looked at and the elements of convictions would to a fault be analysed.OVERVIEW OF personaS 2,3 AND 4SECTION 2 OF THE HASAWA 1974 particle 2 of the Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA) 1974, imposes duties on the employer towards his employees. Section 2(1), states that it shall be the craft of every employer to retard so distant as is reasonably reportable the welln ess, arcticty and welf ar at bestow of all its employees. The names wellness, preventative and welfargon are non understandably checkd (Moore and Selwyn 2015) in the HASAWA 1974 however health includes both mental and natural health. Safety confer withs to the absence of predictable in get over board while welfare boots to water, lighting, bum facilities, cloakroom, canteen etceterateraThis duty is imposed on every employer irrespective of the size of the communication channel or organisation, to ensure that much(prenominal)(prenominal) hightail itplace is steady-going set asided it is reasonably viable for such employer to make it unhurt. The duties imposed by the HASAWA 1974 do non exempt employers of small businesses and the further defence from employers would be commonsense practicability. For usage, an off-license shop employer who only has two part-time employees must as well play along with the duties of the employer to ensure the health, guard duty and welfare of its part-time employees. Section 2(1) also include welfare unlike other partitions of the HASAWA 1974 which only focus on health and rubber. This promoter that employers hasten a duty to offer welfare facilities such as toilets, change room, eating area, adequate ventilation, adequate lighting, etc.The only defence for small business employers or any other employer who is non-compliant with these duties is the reasonably practicability of such health and natural rubber measures. Reasonably practicability is single of those depicted objects of debate. Reasonable practicable depends on a round of situationors which are employ to study if it was reasonably practicable for the progress to to be safe or non. These factors are weighed on a scale which measures the essays versus the sacrifices which the employer has to make in hostelry to comply with the duties. These sacrifices could be ( Matthews and Ageros 2016) time, money, man-power or the effort/ acquaintance available to perish or mitigate those health and safety lay on the lines.An example of a oddball law where so far as is reasonably practicable vie a significant use of goods and portions in the judgement is in Edwards v National Coal Board 1949 1 ALL ER 743, where a timberman who worked in a coalmine was killed by the collapse of the side walls of the road in the course of his work. The National Coal Board was defecaten to dally and they argued that it was non reasonably practicable for them to start prevented the happening. They contended that it was not possible for them to predict where and when a collapse would occur, and the live labour and effort in propping and lining all their mines outweigh the bump.Reasonably practicability ( Moore and Selwyn 2015) varies in each prosecution and it is a question of fact and evidence this depends on the employer having sufficient evidence to study that everything reasonably practicable was done to make the workpl ace safe . Therefore, what energy be reasonably practicable for bon ton A whitethorn not inevitably be reasonably practicable for caller-out B frame of reference 1 (Reasonably practicable) Sub portion 2(2) of the HASAWA 1974 states that it is the duty of the employer to ensure that plants are well maintain and safe clays of work are available so far as is reasonably practicable.Safe systems of work (Moore and Selwyn 2015) for plants can only be provided by an employer if the plant is located in a place where the employer has control all all over it and can give clear directions and procedures on how it should be utilize. Plants should be on a regular basis maintained and efficient at all times in regularise to comply with the duties under sub region 2(2)(a). The maintenance (Moore and Selwyn 2015) of plants is a matter of foresight. The employer could break planned routine checks by fitted somebodys or monitoring broadcast in place to meet the sine qua nons of this co nstituent.In section 2(2) the employer also has a duty to provide breeding, teach, instruction and supervision to its employees. The information (Moore and Selwyn 2015) which is provided must be accurate and consequenceful and also extends to contractors where necessary to ensure safety. In intimately cuticles, employers use induction training as one of the modal values to provide information to its employees. Some employers use toolbox talks and organised in-house training as nub of conveying health and safety related information to their employees. Any employer who does not provide adequate supervision to its employees would be in better of this section.Section 2 (3)-(7) imposes duties on the employer to provide and revise health and safety policy and also have safety representatives and safety committees depending on the size of the organisation.An example of a prosecution under section 2(3) is Osborne v Bill Taylor of Huyton Ltd 1982 ICR 168. This demote was (Barret and Howells 1995) a failure to prepare an adequate create verbally health and safety policy. The club carried out betting business in thirty-one separate betting shops connected by a rudimentary accounting system, management training program etc. The judge close in this case was that the beau monde was not in shift of section 2(3) because it had less than five employees for the time cosmos. In my opinion, I would disagree with the decide decision because the fact that the betting shops are centrally controlled means that it is one single working class, taking place in several locations and the total result of employees should be nearly ninety-three (93), see below for details- = 93 employeesFigure 2And at that placefore, should have been make bloodguilty for a cave in of section 2(3) because more than five employees were involveing a single parturiency in various locations.2.2. SECTION 3 OF THE HASAWA 1974Section 3 of the HASAWA 1974 covers the oecumenical duties of employers and mercenary(a) to the public/ other people not employed by them. It states that it is the duty of every employer to conduct its undertaking in such a way to ensure so far as is reasonably practicable that persons not in his employment are not undecided to health and safety risks.(The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974) Lays emphasis in subsection 3(3) that the employer and self employed persons must give information about the hazards and risks associated with the conduct of its undertaking to those who may be affected by the conduct of his undertaking in a official means. This basically means that in some cases, it would be necessary for the employer or self employed persons to provide information which could be in the form of mailed newsletters, letter or formal visits to those who may be affected by the conduct of their undertaking to provide the necessary information about the areas in which these people may be affected and ship canal to reduce delineation for the benefit of their health and safety. For example, before a look project commences, the neighbouring community inescapably to be aware of the health and safety risks such as noise, moving plants and strenuous duty vehicles, etc in order for both parties to agree on ways to reduce their exposure.In section 3, the phrase reasonably practicable has been apply which means that the employer or self employed persons need to weigh the risks versus the cost to determine if it is reasonably practicable for these safety measures to be in place. Additionally, this section refers to the word inflict which to my understanding means a specified manner in which the information has to be presented to those who may be affected by the conduct of the employers or self-employed persons undertaking. One of the most common prescribed ways in which such information may be conveyed is by means of induction training for visitors.In this section, the word risk has been used which means (Moore and Selwyn 2015) the possibility of danger and not actual danger. The HASAWA 1974 does not state that an employer needs to wait for an throw to occur before measures and procedures would be in place. It states that provided on that point is a possibility of danger or blur, so it is the duty of the employer to both eliminate or mitigate such hazards.Another key word used in section 3 is undertaking which means (Moore and Selwyn 2015) business, work activities, enterprise etc. For instance, if company A gives a contract to company B (Brick-layer) who lays bricks in company As site, then the layering of bricks forms part of company As undertaking. However, the question of how frequently control the employer has (Moore and Selwyn 2015) over the operation as part of his undertaking could make it difficult in any condemnable conviction. For example, if Company B decides to lay the bricks outside company As construction site, then company A may not have much control over how the br icklayers decide to lay those bricks with regards to health and safety. Some case law examples referring to undertaking are R v Swan huntsman Shipbuilders Ltd 1981 ICR 831 and R v Mara 1986 IRLR 154, which would be discussed later in the assignment.It is weighty to degrade that an employer (Moore and Selwyn 2015) may still be conducting his undertaking even though the business is unsympathetic. For example, a food factory may be closed but the cleaning and maintenance of machinery may still be taking place which would still form part of the employers undertaking.2.3.SECTION 4This section states the general duties of persons concerned with expound to persons other than their employees. It imposes duties on people such as landlords, security officers, estate agents etc. who have (Moore and Selwyn 2015) control over non-domestic set forth or the means of access (such as doors, stairs, lift etc) or exit or any plant or substances which are used by non-employees as a place of work, to ensure that such areas or plants are safe so far as is reasonably practicable.It is important to note that residential premise are clearly domestic set forth except the communal areas such as lifts, stairs, main door etc. which could be used as access for persons such as handyman, repairers, plumber, electricians, etc. as a place of work.The phrase reasonably practicable has also been used in this section of the Act. When a person makes (Moore and Selwyn 2015) available premise for the use of others, the cleanness of the measures taken to ensure safety must be determined in the light of the controllers knowledge of the anticipated use of those premises and his knowledge of the actual use. For example, if a Landlord rents out offices to businesses, the landlord needs to know the range of a function of these businesses in order to put certain safety measures in place.This means that the level-headedness of such safety measures (Moore and Selwyn 2015) would be weighed against the controllers knowledge, the finances and effort it would take for such hazard to be eliminated or mitigated. For instance, an uneducated landlord who owns business premises may have the finances but may not have the knowledge or effort in ensuring that such premises is safe however evidence is needed to this defence of reasonably practicability.It is important to note that the duties (Moore and Selwyn 2015) under section 4 are not limited to persons who are at work. Section 4(1)(a) states that these duties are in relation to non-employees, which would harbor the general public including children. For example, a person who controls childrens play centres, libraries, schools etc would still have a duty to ensure that such premises are safe and without risks to those who may be affected by the conduct of their undertaking.A case law example under a breach of section 4 is Mailer v Austin Rover Group Plc 1989 2 ALL ER 1087, where an employee of a contractor was killed while working for Austin Rover. Austin Rover was super charged for a breach of section 4 because it had total control of the premises and could have taken measures to prevent such fatality.Another example of a prosecution under section 4 is the case of Westminster City Council versus deal Management Ltd 1984 1 ALL ER 994. This company managed blocks of flats in capital of the United Kingdom and had control of the common areas such as lifts, staircase, and landings etc and failed to ensure that the lifts and electrical installations were safe and without risk to health and safety.SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTIONS 2, 3 AND 4 2.4.1 Sections 2 and 3 refer to the duties of the employer either towards their employees or non-employees. The employer has an obligation to ensure that the workplace is safe. Non-employers would be exempted from the duties under sections 2 and 3. Additionally, sections 2 and 3 create lamentable offences for the employer if not complied with (R v tangerine tree confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015).A case law example is R versus Swan Hunter Shipbuilders 1981 ICR 831, where these companies were charged for breaching sections 2 and 3 of the HASAWA 1974. On the 25th of September 1976, a welder (an employee of Telemeter) went into a small compartment in the deck where a fire started the moment he started welding. The question that was elevated (Barrett and Howells 1995) was whether the duties imposed on Swan hunter under sections 2 and 3 include to provide the employees of sub-contractors with information about the dangers of oxygen enriched atmosphere and second with instructions to ensure that safety of the workers on board, including the employees of Swan hunters and Telemeter.Figure 3From the above diagram the relationship among Swan hunter and Telemeters is colossal and the jury made emphasis that the duties under section 2 and 3 are wide copious to cover providing information and instruction to contractors and subcontractors as well .The precedent that was established in the above case law is the meaning of the phrase conduct of its undertaking in relation to the duties imposed on the employer in section 3 of the HASAWA 1974. With regards to undertaking, the welding job done by Telemeter was part of Swan hunters undertaking and on that pointfore, failed to ensure the health and safety of persons not in its employment.Furthermore, section 2 is concerned with ensuring safety and section 3 is concerned with ensuring an absence of safety (Matthews and Ageros 2016) which mean the same thing.The level of safety in the workplace would be determined by what is reasonably foreseeable by the employer. Reasonably foreseeability is an important element in managing risks in the workplace.An example of a case law where foreseeability of risks played an important role in the judgement is R versus Tangerine confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015. In this case, the defendant was charged in breach of section 2 of HASAWA 1974 be cause an operator of machinery was upset to finis by a WD machine used in manufacturing sweets. The judge in R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015 stated, Safety must be judged by what might be reasonably foreseen by a reasonable and prudent employer.The defendant stated that the accident was not foreseeable. The foreseeability of risk (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) is only reasonably practicable if a reasonable person can foresee a temporal risk which is created by a plant, machinery or work-related activity. In this case, the foreseeability of an injury occurring with the use of the WD machine was obvious. However, the jury had no evidence that (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) the foreseeability of the risks of this machine caused the accident because the machine had been used for thousands of hours without any accidents. Irrespective of the lack of evidence on foreseeability, the jury concluded that there was a foreseea ble possibility that person might get entangled in the arms of this machine (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015).The precedent that was established in the above case is the meaning of foreseeable risk. The risk has to be a real risk which a reasonable person can foresee to be a source of danger. Foreseeability of risks is relevant to the question whether a material risk to safety exists. That is why a risk judging is an exercise in foresight. Sections 2 and 3 impose a duty on employers to ensure an absence of safety (R v Tangerine Confectionery Ltd 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) which makes them think deliberately about risks which are both obvious and not obvious. If an employer does not have the knowledge to enable him/her foresee risks, then it is his/her responsibility to employ a competent person such as a health and safety advisor to assist him in conducting an adequate risk assessment.Another example of a prosecution where foreseeability influenced the judgement is Regina v Pyranha Mouldings Ltd 2014 EWCA Crim 533. Pyranha Mouldings Ltd was prosecuted for a breach of section 2(1) of the HASAWA 1974 collectible to an incident which occurred on the 2nd of March 2011. This company manufactured tractile Kayaks and canoes which were shipped in shipping containers. On this particular day, the loader/ banksman Mark Malcom was crushed against the roof of container because the forklift device driver could not see him.This company was prosecuted because the insecure system of work had existed for over eighteen years without any risk assessment and lack of supervision of work. The jury stated that (R v Pyranha Mouldings Ltd 2014 EWCA Crim 533) the risk of sincere injury or death was substantial and foreseeable but the company did nothing about it. The foreseeability in this case played an important role in the judgement and the elements of conviction for a breach of section 2(1) are that Pyranha mouldings was the employer of Mr Malcom (the injured wo rker) and the employer also failed to ensure the health, safety and welfare of Mr Malcom and other employees including the forklift driver Mr Kevin.The incubus of proof rests on Pyranha Mouldings to show the Jury that it took all reasonably practicable stairs to keep the workplace safe, which it failed to do therefore was guilty of the offence under section 2(1) of the HASAWA 1974 .Another similarity surrounded by sections 2 and 3 is that the duties (Matthews and Ageros 2016) imposed are personal and cannot be delegated. The employer and self-employed have full responsibility to ensure health and safety and have no defence that the duties were delegated to a member of staff who failed to ensure compliance.The difference between sections 2 and 3 (R v Tangerine Confectionery 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) is on the person to whom the obligation is owed. Section 2 creates an obligation towards employees while section 3 is towards non-employees or the general public who may be affected by that employers undertaking/ job activities.An example of a case law is Veola ES v The Queen 2011 EWCA Crim 2015), a refuse collection company that was sentenced for a breach of sections 2 and 3 of the HASAWA 1974. In this case, an employee Mr Griffiths was killed on a strong dual carriage way while collecting litter. The defendant argued that the accident had nothing to do with the operation of the defendants undertaking. The appeal was dismissed because the court did not have to prove causation of the accident. Causation of the accident (R v Tangerine Confectionery 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) was a matter of evidence but not an inhering ingredient of the offence. An accident is enough evidence that a material risk existed and his employees health, safety and welfare were not ensured. Under sections 3 of the HASAWA 1974, it was the conduct of the defendants undertaking of litter collection which exposed the defendants non-employees to the accident (R v Tangerine Confectionery 2011 EWCA Crim 2015).Another similarity between sections 2, 3 and 4 is that the phrase so far as is reasonably practicable is being used, which means that these duties are not absolute. This phrase gives those obliged to fulfil their duties the freedom to weigh the risks versus the cost, in order to ensure that the workplace or premises is safe. What is reasonably practicable depends (R v Tangerine Confectionery 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) on degree of foreseeable risk of injury, the gravity of the injury if it occurs and the implications of the measures/ methods in countermanding it. An offence is committed under section 2 if the defendant cannot prove that all reasonably practicable steps have been taken to ensure that its employees are safe in the workplace. go under section 3, an offence is committed if there is a material risk to the health and safety of non-employees (R v Tangerine Confectionery 2011 EWCA Crim 2015) who may be affected by the employers undertaking and the defendant has not taken such steps as are reasonably practicable to avoid those risks.Under section 4, an offence is committed if the person in control of premises so far as is reasonably practicable has not ensured that such premises is safe and without risks to the health and safety of those who might be affected.Another similarity between sections 2 and 3 is that they both refer to the phrase in such cases as may be prescribed and in a prescribed circumstance and prescribed manner which gives an characteristic that the responsible person based on the line would fulfil these duties in a particular way.Section 3 and 4 refer to the word undertaking. In section 3 the employer needs to ensure the health and safety of non-employees who may be affected by any risks arising from his work activities. Subsections 4(4) refers to the controllers business activities or undertaking which means that any work activity connected with such controller of premises need to be done in a safe manner.Sections 2(2)(d) and 4 have similarities, in that they both refer to the provision of safe access and exit from work premises, provided it is reasonably practicable to do it. These sections also refer to the extent of control which the employer or controller of such premises has. For example in the Swan Hunter Shipbuilders 1981 ICR 831 case, the issue of control was also raised. Another case example (Barret and Howells 1995) is that of Westminster City Council v Select Management Ltd 1985, where the appellant was in breach of section 4 of the HASAWA 1974 because it failed to ensure that the communal areas of a block of flats were safe.Subsection 2(2)(a) imposes duties on the employer to ensure that plants are safe and without risks to (Barret and Howells 1995) employees, which is similar to those duties under sections 4(2).ELEMENTS OF AN OFFENCE OF BREACHING THE DUTIES UNDER SECTION 2In order for the jury to convict an employer for a breach of sections 2(1) the following elements would need to be proven ( Matthews and Ageros 2016)That the defendant was at the material time an employerThat the defendant failed to ensure the health, safety and welfare of its employees at work. A failure to ensure health and safety occurs when there is an exposure to a material risk to health and safety. The employee (Matthews and Ageros 2016) has to be at work for this to be relevant. This means that when the business is shut or closed for the day and there is no one at work then it is not applicable because no employees are exposed (Matthews and Ageros 2016).The employer would be guilty of a breach of section 2(1) unless it can prove that it was not reasonably practicable to minimize or eliminate the risk to the health, safety and welfare of its employees. Satisfying the test of reasonably practicability (Barret and Howells 1995) involves placing the risk on one scale and the sacrifices pertain in taking the necessary measures for eliminating or mitigating the risk ( time, money, effort etc) being placed on the other scale.ELEMENTS OF AN OFFENCE OF BREACHING THE DUTIES UNDER SECTION 3In order for an employer to be convicted for a breach of section 3(1) the burden of proof rests on the prosecuting officer to show the following (Barret and Howells 1995)That the defendant at the material time was an employerThat the defendant failed to conduct its undertaking in such a way as to ensure (Barret and Howells 1995) that persons not employed by the defendant who might be affected thereby were not exposed to material risks to their health and safety.AREAS OF CONTROVERSIES AND DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DUTIES Some words and phrases relating to the duties under sections 2, 3 and 4 have been interpreted differently by different judges and have also created controversies in the court of law.Firstly, the HASAWA 1974 does not directly define the word employer but defines an employee to be someone who works under a contract of employment. Thus, an employer is a person who employs an employee. Therefore, if a person has no employees he/she is not an employer and does not owe a duty under section 3(1) but could be prosecuted under section 3(2) as a self-employed person. The fact that the act does not clearly define the word employer creates equivocalness in the court where someone may be regarded as an employer but no compose contract of employment exists between such employer and the employee. This also creates another issue between the contract of employment and contract of service. For example, a small business may have a contract of service with a self-employed cleaner to clean their premises on a daily basis, but there is no contract of employment between them. Would the jury regard such a cleaner as an employee or a contractor? And would the employer still owe a duty under section 2? These questions could only be answered based on the situation and evidence.Moreover, there are companies which employ nobody under a written contract of service but engage a s ignificant number of self-employed workers. In this case, a prosecution of such a company may be undertaken for a breach of sections 2(1) or sections 3(1) with the company so-called to be an employer (Matthews and Ageros 2016) through the extent of its control over those performing the work .For example, R versus Swan Hunter shipbuilder 1981 ICR 831 case.Another area of line of reasoning under these duties is with the phrase exposed to risks to health and safety. It is important to note that an exposure to health and safety risks (Matthews and Ageros 2016) occurs where there is a possibility of danger and this does not require the danger to have occurred or any dangerous occurrence to have come to pass. In some prosecutions, the prosecutors argued that an accident or injury is sufficient evidence to prove that a material risk exists in the workplace.An example of a prosecution relating to this phrase (Barret and Howells 1995) is the case of R v Board of Trustees of the Science Mus eum1993 3 All ER 853 ,where the museum was in breach of section 3(1) because two of its cooling towers could possibly be containing legionella Pneumophila bacterium. The prosecutor stated (Barret and Howells 1995) that they did not have to prove that the members of the public actually inhaled the bacteria and that the word risk means the possibility of danger and not necessarily actual danger.Even where an injury has occurred, it may not be enough for the prosecutor to simply claim that the injury demonstrates that there was a risk. Where a prosecution is brought under section 3(1), it may be necessary to recognise and prove the respects (Matthews and Ageros 2016) in which the injured person was liable to be affected by the way the defendant conducted its undertaking.Furthermore, could an employer be prosecuted under section 2 when no employee is at work? This is an area where prosecutors have debated over.For example, Bolton metropolitan Borough Council versus Malrod Insulations Ltd 1993 ICR 358, where the prosecutor appealed on allegations made against an asbestos removal company called Malrod Insulations Ltd. This company was undertake to strip asbestos insulation from the premises of Ingesoll Rand Ltd. On the 21st of November 1989, the premises were inspected by the environmental health services of Bolton metropolitan Borough council.During this inspection, there were no employees at work and it was evident that the asbestos decontamination plant had electrical defects. The prosecutor took (Barret and Howells 1995) this case to court but at the end of the case, the recorder upheld a submission that there was no case to answer because in order for Malrod Insulations Ltd to be found guilty of the offence under section 2 of the HASAWA 1974, its employees had to be at work.The appellant argued (Barret and Howells 1995) that it is not the fact of men being at work while in the course of employment which creates the offence, but the HASAWA 1974 must protect t he employees who would come to work the next day.In the above case, the interpretation of the employers duties seems ambiguous. In my opinion, section 2(1) states that the employer should ensure the health, safety and welfare of its employees at work and then section 2(2) lays down examples of how these duties can be carried out. However, (Moore and Selwyn 2015) it begins with the sentence without prejudice to the generalization of the duties under the preceding subsection. Subsection 2(2)(a) states that the provision of safe plants is a requirement irrespective of whether or not employees are at work. Referring to the above case, the fact that such unsafe asbestos decontamination plant is within the place of work increases its likelihood of been used when workers resume work the following day. The employer could argue that such unsafe plants would undergo repairs before anyone is permitted to use the

The Acquisition Vs Learning Education Essay

The Acquisition Vs t individuallying instruct EssayThe ingrainedness of nomenclature structure is most relevant to the c ar by which a child contains its first phrase. The first lyric is learnt inform all(prenominal)y, naturally and ad lib with come forward the child being aw be of the fact that it is eruditeness something. But there comes a st maturate when the child learns a impertinent dustup which whitethorn be the morsel or third nomenclature. As secondly or third speech study happens through with(predicate) a formal make, motion picture to an altogether diametrical kind is required where the study situation is artificial.It is chiefly said that people acquire the first dustup and learn the second language but experts in the field often use it inter counterchangeably. large number learn or acquire these languages in diverse circumstances with take issueent end points. The difference between first language and second language achievement be pres umably due to different conditions that either facilitates or backwardness language acquisition/ pedagogy. In First quarrel Acquisition (FLA) plenteous exposure is available but it is non so with the second language where natural circumstances argon available. It is through instruction that second language is mostly learnt. Second Language acquisition appears to be a knead which exhibits certain regularities, is constrained by a number of factors determining its course, locate of progress, and final outcome, is subject, in spite of appearance certain limits, to external influences much(prenominal) as (methods of ) instruction(Klein, 1988.1).Krashen attempts to make out between the first language acquisition and second language learning by saying, there are two independent ways to developing ability in second languages. Acquisition is a sub cognizant process identical in all alpha ways to the process children hire in acquiring their first language, while learning is a conscious process that results in penetrating about language (1985.1). Hence, Acquiring a language is picking it up i.e. developing ability in a language for use in natural, communicative situations. Language learning is knowing the rules, having a conscious fellowship of the grammar (Chaudhary, 2002, 96).A second language washbasin be acquired rather than learnt in situations where children father exposure to a astray honk of languages i.e. a multilingual situation is conducive to language acquisition. However, it is requisite to keep in mind that there is a wide range of learners from different environments and settings which affect the degree to which learners nonplus the opportunity to acquire the second language. More over, cognitive processes of learning by rule formation helps learners to acquire language faster than by the natural processes of unconscious acquisition. instructor Education in IndiaThe increase of both, Pre-service and In-service instructor genteel ness in India is explained, in order to illuminate a good companionship of the objectives of the programmes, the phylogenys that reserve taken office staff in various instructor education programmes and the current utter of affairs in the field of t to each oneer education in India.Pre-service teacher education instructor education programmes have existed in the country for over a century. In the 1850s, teacher planning existed as an undifferentiated course of study meant for disciplineing teachers. Later, on the recommendations of the Indian Education bursting charge (1884), the teacher training programmes were vogue much differentiated and for graduates the course was designed to be of shorter duration.During the twentieth century, greater differentiation was sought and practised with respect to the stages at which teachers were expected to teach. aboard this, different training modes were break ind, such as regular campus-cum-practicing school experience, correspond ence-cum-contact programmes and the to a greater extent recent distance learning programmes of teacher education. Despite such diversification, the prefatorial features of these programmes as advantageously as the theoretical premises have non altered signifi whoremongertly. Although newer concerns surface from time to time have been taken light of, for e.g. learner-centeredness and the break-with-methods. These concerns have not influenced in any major way the briny stream system of teacher education (Stern, 1983).The original preparation of teachers has been recognised to be authoritative for the qualitative improvement of education since the 1960s (Kothari Commission, 1964-66). The Commission, in particular notes the read for teacher education to bebrought into the mainstream of the academic vivification of the Universities on the single hand and of school life and educational maturation on the other.Recognizing quality as the essence of a programme of teacher educa tion, the Commission recommended the interdiction of integrated courses of familiar and professional education in Universities and a comprehensive programme of internship.Subsequently (1983-85), The Chattopadhyaya Committee cover up of the theme Commission on instructors envisi atomic number 53d the New teacher as one who communicates to pupilsthe importance of and the feeling for national integrity and unity the need for a scientific attitude a load to excellence in standards of bestow and action and a concern for society.The Commission observed thatwhat obtains in the bulk of our dogma Colleges and didactics Institutes is woefully inadequateIf teacher education is to be made relevant to the consumptions and responsibilities of the New Teacher, the minimum length of training for a Secondary teacher should be louver years following the goal of class 12.Reiterating the need to enable general and professional education to be pursued concurrently, the Commission recommends th atto begin with we may have an integrated intravenous feeding year programme which should be highly- developed carefully it may withal be possible for some of the existing colleges of Science and Arts to introduce an Education Department along with their other programmes allowing for a section of their students to favor for teacher education.The Chattopadhyaya Commission recommends a four-year integrated course for the secondary as well as the elementary teacher. (NCERT, 2005)The National insurance policy of Education (NPE 1986-92) recognized thatteachers should have the freedom to innovate, to device appropriate methods of conference and activities relevant to the postulate of and capabilities of and the concerns of the community.The policy further realms thatteacher education is a continuous process, and its pre-service and in-service components are inseparable.As a first step, the system of teacher education was to be overhauled. The Acharya Ramamurti Committee (1990) in i ts review of the NPE 1986 observed that an internship model for teacher training should be adopted because the internship model is firmly based on the chief(a) value of actual field experience in a vivid situation, on the development of teach skills by radiation pattern over a period of time.The Yashpal Committee Report (1993) on Learning without burden famedinadequate programmes of teacher preparation lead to unsatisfactory quality of learning in schools The content of the programme should be restructured to ensure its relevance to the changing call for of school education. The emphasis in these programmes should be on modify the trainees to acquire the ability for self-learning and independent thinking. (NCERT, 2005)In-service Teacher EducationSimilar developments have taken place in respect of in-service programmes of teacher education. However, it may be noted that the in-service programmes have drawn their substance from the emerging call for and concerns of education appeared from time to time. As a result these programmes have, at at best, been awareness programmes in respect of specific concerns and not teacher development programmes, as visualized.As an outcome of the National Policy on Education (1986), penchant of school teachers gained momentum on a mass scale. Efforts have been initiated over the past few years to gradually develop a interlock of institutions like DIETS, IASEs, CTEs with the mandate of providing in-service education to primary and secondary school teachers respectively. During the utmost(a) decade the use of satellite interactive television based activities have been provided for teacher up-gradation as part of the SOPT and DPEP projects. The majority of them however restrain to make their legacy functions (NCERT), 2005).The major indicator of quality of training is its relevance to the unavoidably of teachers. The transactional approach and other concepts like activity based instruct, joyful learning, schoolroom management for large size classes and multi grade situations, team educational activity, co-operative and collaborative learning which require demonstration and participatory training are alike be after to included in in-service education programmes. The potential for radical shifts in school practises and programmes via effective in-service education programmes has been ac acquaintanced by most Education Committees and Commissions.The Report of the National Commission on Teachers (1983-85) highlighted the absence of of clear-cut policies and priorities for in-service education and pretermit of systematic identification of needs. It recommended planning ahead of time and closure exam of methodologies adopted for in-service education of teachers. It also recommended that strategies used for in-service education must be imaginative, bold and varied. It further states that the most effective among them are the services make through the school complex put forward by the Kothari Commission intends to link primary and secondary schools with a view to pulling choices and including the educational processes.The commission mooted the idea of Teachers Centres that could function asa meeting place for teachers located in a school that has resources that it would like to share with others it is a forum where workshops practical in spirit are organized for teachers of all faculties and at all levels it pools in the talents of all teachers of various schools who act as resource personnel for centres workshops and it arranges book fairs. What teachers need most is a change in the climate of schools, an atmosphere conducive to educational research and question (select) teachers could be given study leave and sent to advanced centres of learning for furthering their professional competence through visiting fellowships.The landmark National Policy on Education (1986) linked in-service teacher education as a continuum with pre-service education. A Centrally Sponsored Scheme of restructuring and strengthening of teacher education was evolved and implemented. The strategy visualized the establishment of DIETs in each district, up-gradation of 250 Colleges of Education as Colleges of Teacher Education, establishment of 50 institutes of Advanced Studies in Education (IASEs) and strengthening of deposit Councils of educational Research and Training (NCERT, 2005).In all these reports, common ideas denotative are the need to restructure the teacher education programmes to the changing needs of education, and to make these programmes more(prenominal) as awareness- raising programmes. in like manner, these programmes needed to be exemplifying and participatory in nature, with varied strategies to explore methodologies.With all these developments in teacher education, it is interesting and of import to see the outcome of these changes from the perspectives of teachers, teacher educators and researchers.REFERENCESStern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Con cepts of Language Teaching. Oxford Oxford University Press.NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) (2005). Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988-1992). Vol. I and II. New Delhi NCERT.NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) (2005). National Curriculum Framework. New Delhi NCERT.II CHAPTERIn order to organize and interpret the descriptive data, the following triplet related areas in the literature were reviewed. These are (a) Theories of language training and learning, (b) The methods of language teaching and language skills and (c) In-service teacher education. This chapter puts together the summary of the review findings from these trey major areas.Researchers ac friendship the complexity involved in teaching and in learning to teach effectively (Ballentyne, Bain and Packer, 1999 Calderhead, 1996 Clark and Peterson, 1986). At the primary and secondary levels, the delicate and complicated process of learning to teach has been well studied (Ethell, 1997 Wideen, Mayer-Smith, and Moon, 1998). emergent from these researches is the pinch of the commutation role that teachers views and theories play in teaching practice (Pajares, 1992 Richardson, 1996 and Trumbull, 1990).The field of language teaching is subject to rapid changes. This is because the profession responds to new educational paradigms and trends, changes in curriculum, and students needs. Educational institutions also face new challenges resulting from changes in language teaching. As a result, teachers need regular opportunities to update their professional knowledge and skills. This update is necessary for teachers to take appropriate decisions in the classroom. end taking depends on teachers sagaciousness and assumptions about language teaching.The dominant image of teacher learning and development as development of skills of performance which is by and large unreflective has led to a formal procedure of following instruction manual from autho rity. The result is that teachers are growing more alienated for a wishing of in the flesh(predicate) signifi buttce in the teaching and learning processes. So, the search for an substitute model of development is motivated by dissatisfaction with the existing one and chess opening of an alternative view as holding more potential to allot issues of concern to this study. This could be in form of providing opportunities to teachers voice their views about teaching/learning English as a second language. It could also be reflecting on their practices, thus finding out their own insights in more concrete terms and, through cut-in programmes, rethinking of their teaching practices for better down the stairsstanding of teaching and learning processes.In the reconstituted view of teacher change, teachers are seen as playing an active, developmental and constructivist role that is based on both infrastanding and skills. This alternative view of teachers receives digest in the liter ature where, for instance, teachers have been seen as authors of reform (Krishner, 2002.47), as researchers and curriculum developers (Stenhouse, 1975), and as progressing towards self-authorship (Baxtor Magolda, 2001, 2002, 2003, 200 and King, 2004). The responsibility this entails in making informed choices as a teacher is a example and intellectual meaning making process involving the teacher in self-reflection. beyond acquiring behaviour, it centres more fundamentally on the views of teachers about the nature of knowledge, nature of teaching and learning, and, their role in making explicit their implicit theories of teaching/learning, among other things. In this chapter, the theories of teaching and learning, methods of teaching language skills will be discussed in detail. It will also discuss the INSET programmes offered in India and, get a line at some studies in these areas in order to arrive at a methodological framework of the present study.Theories of TeachingTeachers te ach within the context of framework of assumptions that shape their planning and interactive decisions. Theories of teaching are central to how one understands the nature and importance of classroom practices. As Posner (1985) observes, different theories of teaching lead to a different understanding of classroom life.A didactic view of teaching is based on the belief that teaching is in general concerned with transmitting knowledge through providing clear explanations, or discussions.A discovery view of teaching by contrast, is based on the idea that students stop develop knowledge themselves through active investigating and discovery, with a minimum of teacher explanation and with a provision of opportunities to learn inductively from observation.An interactionist view, on the other hand, holds that students come with well-formed ideas, so that there is a necessary interaction between the students own ideas and the learning materials.While general teaching theories such as thes e have informed approaches to mainstream teaching, such as behaviourist, cognitive-developmental, kindly-psychological, theories specific to second language teaching and learning have been developed and formed the fanny for specific methodologies for language teaching such as the Communicative Approach and Natural Approach. However, teaching is an individual activity. As such, teacher development involves teachers in creating an approach that draws on their experiences and understanding as well as their personal principles about food teaching. These are known as the teachers implicit theories of teaching.the explanations given by teachers for what they do are typically not derived from what they were taught in teacher education programmesRather, the classroom actions of teachers are guided by internal frames of reference which are deeply rooted in personal experiences, especially in school ones, and are based on interpretations of these experiences.(Marland, 1995. 131)Theories of LearningThere are numerous approaches and theories which have a huge tint on learning. Generally, approaches provide knowledge about how people acquire their knowledge of the language and about the conditions which will promote successful language learning. quintuple major approaches to language teaching/learning will be discussed below.The realistic ApproachThis approach is based on the assumption that language acquisition is innately determined and that one is born with a certain system of language that one can call on later. Numerous linguists and methodologists support this innateness hypothesis. Chomsky, who is the leading proponent, claims that each military personnel being possesses a set of innate properties of language which is prudent for the childs mastery of a native language in a short span of time (Brown, 2002. 24). According to Chomsky, the mechanism, which he calls language acquisition device (LAD), governs all human languages, and determines what possible form h uman language may take (Dulay, Burt, Krashen, 1982. 6).Some linguists, in particular Stephen Krashen, sort out between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is so-called to be a unconscious process which leads to fluency. Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process which shows itself in terms of learning rules and structures. Furthermore, Krashen claims that there are three internal processors that ladder when students learn or acquire a second language the subconscious mind filter and the organizer as well as the conscious manage (Dulay, Burt, Krashen 1982. 11-45). The organizer determines the organization of the learners language system, the usage of incorrect grammatical constructions as provisional precursors of grammatical structures, the systamatical occurrence of errors in the learners utterances as well as a common order in which structures are learnt. The filter is responsible for the extent to which the learners acquisition is influenced by hearty circumstan ces such as motivation and affective factors such as anger or anxiety. The supervise is responsible for conscious learning. The learners correct mistakes in their speech according to their age and self-consciousness (Dulay, Burt, Krashen 1982.45).Cognitive ApproachCognitive psychologists claim that one of the main factors of second language acquisition is the building up of a knowledge system that can eventually be called on automatically for intercommunicate and understanding. At first, learners have to build up a general knowledge of the language they want to understand and produce. After a lot of practice and experience they will be able to use certain part of their knowledge very quickly and without realizing that they did so. Gradually, this use becomes unconscious and the learners may snap on other parts of the language.The cognitive theory is relative fresher to second language acquisition and there have been only a few empirical studies about this approach so far. Altho ugh it is known that the processes of automatizing and restructuring are central to the approach, it is up to now not clear what kinds of structures will be automatized through practice and what will be restructured. Also it cannot predict which first language structures will be transferred and which will not. As far as the phenomenon of restructuring is concerned, psychologists state that things that one knows and uses automatically may not necessarily learned through a gradual build-up of automaticity but they may be based on the interaction on knowledge one already has. They may also be based on the acquisition of new language which somehow fits into an existing system and may, in fact, restructure this system (Lightbown and Spada, 1995. 25). Two important models in this approach are Attention processing model and understood and Explicit models.The Constructive ApproachIn the constructive paradigm, learning emphasizes the process ans the product. Learning is process of constru cting important representations, of making sense of ones experiential world. In this process, students errors are seen in a positive light and as means of gaining insight into how they are organizing their experiential world. The notion of doing something right or correctly is to do something that fits with an order one has established oneself (Von Glasersfield, 1987. 15). This perspective is legitimate with the constructivist tendency to support multiple truths, representations, perspectives and realities.Multiplicity is an overriding concept for constructivism. It defines not only the epistemological and theoretical perspective but also the galore(postnominal) ways in which the theory itself can be articulated. Researchers and theorists have developed variants of constructivism or have evolved the theory in different directions. Nonetheless, there are many common themes in the literature on constructivism which permit the filiation of principles, instructional models and gener al characteristics.Social Interaction ApproachAccording to Vygotsky, social interaction plays a vital role in the learning process. He emphasizes the role of shared language in the development of thought and language which stands for social interaction. According to Vygotsky (1962) children develop higher order cognitive functions such as linguistic skills, through interactions with adults or more knowledgeable peers. finally these skills are internalized independently. The most important interactions take place within a childs Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It is the teachers duty to try to take each child to the next level (X+1). The teacher does this by giving uttermost help to the children. Perhaps he/she can give learners just the breathe in they need. This prompt provides for the learners a breakthrough he/she needs. Sometimes the teacher can take the whole class through a series of steps, which help them make for the problem. Learning depends on the differences in th eir areas of zones of proximal development. Children are to be exposed to the social interaction first and it will eventually enable them build their inner resources.Vygotskys contention is that language is the key to all development and words play a central role on the development of thought but in the festering of cognition as a whole. Therefore, child language acquisition is the result of social interaction. Teaching is social responsibility and a cognitive activity.The Communicative ApproachProponents of this approach state that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence. another(prenominal) aim is the development of procedures for the teaching of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). Moreover, the four skills build the basis of the independence of language and communication (Richards and Rodgers, 1986. 64-66).According to Littlewood, one of the most important tantrums of Communicative Language Teaching is that it plays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language (Littlewood, 1981.1). Another important aspect is pair and group work. Learners should work in pairs or groups and try to solve problematic tasks with their available language knowledge.Generally, communicative language teaching focuses on communicative and contextual factors in language use and it is learner-centred and experience-based.A central aspect of Communicative Language Teaching is communicative competence. (See also )Also there is little discussion of learning theory, there are still some elements that, according to Richards and Rodgers (1986), can be defined as communication principles and meaningfulness principles. The first one includes activities that involve real communication which are supposed to promote learning. The second element describes activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks which are also supposed to promote learning. The last one states that language that is me aningful to the learner supports the learning process. Of great importance is meaningful and authentic language use (Richards and Rodgers, 1986. 72).In-service Teacher Education (INSET)Teachers can continue to be learners and develop their pedagogical understandings using their beliefs, by engaging themselves in ongoing professional development opportunities. One of these opportunities is the In-service teacher education programmes where teachers can learn to reflect on other teachers teaching and, think meta cognitively about teaching and learning which is a key factor in being able to resolve problems and dilemmas that arise in their daily teaching practices.There are fundamental assumptions underlying teacher education (Fullen, 1991)Teacher education must be thought of as a rush long proposition.Teacher development and the academic development of the school in terms of curriculum, materials, and methods of teaching must go hand in hand. We cannot have one without the other.The r ole of teacher education programmes in preparing teachers for the difficult enterprise of teaching a second language (English) in India, and particularly the role of in-service teacher education programmes and their impact of teachers classroom teaching would be examined, safekeeping the above said assumptions in the forefront.In-service Teacher Education (INSET) in IndiaThe need for ongoing teacher education has been a recurring theme in language teaching circles in recent years and has been given re-create focus as a result of the emergence of teacher-led initiatives such as action research, team teaching and reflective teaching. Opportunities for an in-service education are crucial for long term development of teachers.The well established tradition of teaching and learning in India has retained its inherent strength even under adverse circumstances. The post-independence period was characterized by major efforts being made to nurture and transform teacher education. The system of teacher education has come under considerable pressure as a result of expansion and growth of school education. Having inherited the foreign model of teacher education at the time of independence from Britain in 1946, major efforts have been made to conform and upgrade teacher education curriculum to local needs, to make it more context-based. The current system of teacher education is supported by a net work of national state and district level resource institutions working together to increase the quality and effectiveness of teacher education programmes for serving teachers throughout the country.The changing role of teachers in the changing definitions of teacher effectiveness have been frequently studied and analysed. The current focus on teacher education is to develop professional competencies, and achieve higher levels of commitment and motivation for higher level performance in teaching. Emerging information and communication technologies is an added dimension to the teacher education programmes. As a result of all these developments, teacher education in India is on the verge of major transformation.Bolam 1986) define teacher education asEducation and training activities busy in by teachers following their initial professional certification, and intended primarily or exclusively to improve their professional knowledge, skills and attitudes in order that they can educate childrenmore effectively.In-service training for teachers in India is provided byThe State Department of Education.Colleges of Education.Educational associations.Voluntary Agencies.In-service programmes are often conducted via short term instructional courses and workshops. many another(prenominal) teachers take part in these programmes which contain a mix of many-courses and instructive lectures.Each state has a State Council of Education Research and Training (SCERT) and whenever a new curriculum is implemented, massive training programmes are set across the state. At the district level, District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETS) try education programmes to train the teachers at district level. In the absence of DIETS, the Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs or IASEs) are entrusted with the responsibilities of training the teachers.The INSET programmes currently in practice can all be put under five different categories based on the aims of the programmes. The following table familiarizes with some types of INSET programmes currently offered in India.Types of INSET programmes in IndiaINSERT PROGRAMMEAIMSunionized by educational Institutions such as CIEFL or RIEEnriching teachers subject knowledge and pedagogyCentrally designed programmes such as KV schoolsTeaching approaches such as orienting all teachers towards CLT approachesLocally determined programmes. For e.g. ALC drill coursesAttending to the felt needs of schoolsOne-off short programmesSpecific aims such as teaching vocabulary, or developing materialsProgrammes determined by indi vidual needsPursuing higher education or self-developmentTable 21 Types of INSET programmes in India(Source Mathew, R.2005)These programmes differ mainly in their aims of the programmes and thereby differ in their training methodologies also. The takers of the programme also vary in each of these INSET programmes. As a result, the impact of these courses also differ. For example, many teachers who are willing to attend the three month INSET courses offered by the regional Institute of South India (RIESI) are serious about updating themselves with the up-to-the-minute developments in the field of ELT and re-equipping themselves to meet the changing demands made by the students, parents and the society.Another example of an INSET course was the 5-Day intensive training programme for teachers working in rural areas which used to be offered by the RIE (i

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Functions

study Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) FunctionsThe resistive dodging is complex, containing thousands of comp peerlessnts. On the whole this highly adaptative system works well, protecting the individual primarily against the threat of affection suitd by infectious organisms (Wood, 2006). However, the tolerant system can deteriorate and plump should any component of this refined system be mutated or compromised.In this report, an overview of the immune system ordain be covered, along with an explanation of how the major(ip) Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) functions special(prenominal)ally. An example of how the immune system can be compromised should the MHC shred be short or absent will also be discussed with reference to a condition known as B ar lymph mobile phone Syndrome. How the MHC molecule contributes to a healthy immune system will be discussed, along with the effect an MHC deficiency has and how this compromises the immune system at a molecular level. Referen ce will be made to a result study related to the B be lymph cell Syndrome and a conclusion will be made as to how this condition links to the MHC molecule specifically.An Overview of the repellent SystemThe immune system can be split into ii systems of immunity, inborn and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the first line of defensive structure against pathogens in the body, preventing most infections occurring by eliminating the pathogen within hours of macrocosm encountered. This is achieved by for the first time possessing external barriers to infections much(prenominal) as skin, mucosa, gut flora and lysozymes in tears. Secondly, the immune system mounts an immediate attack against any infectious sources entering the server via pre-existing defence mechanisms within the body. Phagocytosis is the major element contributing to ignorant immunity. This is the ingestion and destruction of microbes by phagocytes in a process by which the phagocyte attaches to the microbe in question, engulfs the microbe, kills the microbe and then degrades the microbe apply proteolytic enzymes (Wood, 2006). This process is aided by complement proteins and opsonisation. A nonher post of the innate immune response is for inflammation to occur. This enables cells and soluble factors from the sourcestream to be enlisted at a particular tissue site in collection to assist in the fight against infection. These can be local or systemic and deliver vasodilation to occur at the site of infection cause the endothelium to bring in increased expression of adhesion molecules in the cells lining the blood vessels cause increased vascular permeability and cause chemotactic factors to be produced, thence attracting cells into the tissue from the bloodstream (Wood, 2006). Overall, innate immunity is the first step in combating infection in the body however a more specific system is often required.Acquired immunity occurs when a pathogen enters the body which the innate immun e system cannot destroy, whether it is the pathogen has evolved a way of being avoided by the cells in the innate immune system or whether it be the pathogen expresses molecules similar to host cells as in the case of viruses. In such(prenominal) cases as these, acquired immunity is needed, where lymphocytes are used to identify, engulf and kill the pathogen in question. This is a more evolutionary advanced system compared to innate immunity. Two types of lymphocyte cells are assiduous in the acquired immune response these are B lymphocyte cells, which are responsible for creating antibodies and T lymphocyte cells, which are more complex in their receptor and require cell-to-cell contact. There are devil types of T lymphocyte cells those expressing CD4 molecules on their bug out are referred to as Helper T cells or CD4 T cells, and those expressing CD8 molecules of their start are referred to as cytotoxic T cells or CD8 T cells. The latter of these two T cells is primal in the cleanup of virally infected cells (Kindt et. al., 2007). T cells cognise antigens by T cell Receptors (TcR) uttered on their surface each T cell expresses only one TcR specifically. T cells do not recognise free antigens but recognise antigens associated with molecules on the surface of cells called Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules (Wood, 2006). MHC molecules specifically for the human species are known as Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA) these are located on chromosome 6 (Kindt et, al., 2007). The MHC constitutes important genetic components of the mammalian immune system. There are two types of MHC molecules, secernate I and layer II MHC. program I MHC molecules are glycoproteins expressed on the cell surface of most nucleated cells, whereas affiliate II MHC molecules are also glycoproteins but are restricted in their expression, primarily being found on cells of the immune system such as B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and monocytes (Wood, 2006). Class I and II MHC molecules adjudge to antigens derived from pathogens and present them to T lymphocytes (Sommer, 2005). CD8 T cells recognise antigens presented by Class I MHC molecules whereas CD4 T cells recognise antigens presented by Class II MHC molecules. MHC molecules play an important role in immune defence against intracellular pathogens, peptides derived from viral proteins and crab louse infected cells. (Sommer, 2005).Antigen Presentation of MHC Class IAn event involving generation of peptides from proteins in the cell and displaying these peptides on the plasma membrane is called antigen processing and presentation (Benjamini et al., 1996). MHC Class I molecules consists of HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. HLA are cell surface heterodimers consisting of a polymorphic cooking stove associated with a non-polymorphic 2 microglobulin protein (Chaplin, 2010). In the antigen presentation pathway of MHC Class I, the viral protein is degraded into peptides through proteasome-mediated pr oteolysis which is then transported into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (fig 1). This transport process is facilitated by a transporter associated with antigen processing ( smasher). Once in the ER, the translocated peptide binds to MHC Class I chains and 2 microglobulin through momentary interaction of MHC Class I heterodimers and TAP (Chaplin, 2010). This momentary interaction is carried out with the help of Tapasin (fig 2). This binding of peptide and MHC Class I results in structural changes eventually leading to the dissociation of peptide-MHC Class I complex (Chaplin, 2010). This peptide-MHC Class I complex then migrates to the cell surface where it is recognised by CD8 T cells triggering the associated immune response. (Raghavan,1999).When the immune system is working correctly, pathogens entering the body will be destroyed rapidly. However, if a component of the immune system is compromised, devastating effects can be seen. An example of this was seen in the case study of T atiana and horse parsley Islayev two siblings in the first place from Russia who were suffering from symptoms linked to denude Lymphocyte Syndrome. Tatiana had severe bronchiectasis and a permanent cough which produced yellow-green sputum. She had been chronically ill since the age of 4 when she had begun to have repeated infections of the sinuses, middle ear and lungs, all due to a transition of respiratory viruses. Both Haemophilus influenza and Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria could be well-mannered from her sputum. She had been prescribed frequent antibiotic treatments to control her fevers and cough with no success. Her brother, Alexander was also showing the same symptoms. When their blood was examined, some(prenominal) children had elevated immunoglobulin G levels with over 90% of their T cells being CD4 and only 10% being CD8. Both children expressed very small amounts of MHC Class I molecules in their cells but expressed MHC Class II molecules normally. When the child rens DNA was analysed, it was found that they two had a innovation in the TAP-2 gene.Type I Bare Lymphocyte SyndromeBare Lymphocyte Syndrome (BLS) Type I also known as MHC Class I deficiency, is characterized by a severe down-regulation of MHC class I and/or class II molecules (Gadola et. al., 2000). Type 1 BLS is due to a defect confined to MHC class I molecules, while type 2 BLS shows down-regulation of MHC class II molecules. Like any other cell surface protein MHC class I molecules are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), change in the Golgi apparatus and are transported in transport vesicles to the cell surface (Wood, 2006). MHC class I molecules bind to different sets of peptides. Translocation of peptides derived from degradation of cytosolic proteins from the cytoplasm into the RER is negotiated by transporter molecules known as transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) molecules. TAP is a heterodimer consisting of two subunits, TAP-1 and TAP-2 , which are encoded in the class II region of the MHC locale on chromosome 6. Deletion or mutation of either or both TAP-1 and TAP-2 proteins severely impairs the translocation of peptides into the RER, the result of which is reduced surface expression of MHC class I molecules (Gadola et. al., 2000). BLS is manifested as a combined immunodeficiency presenting early in life. BLS manifests during the first 6 years of life where affected individuals are susceptible to recurrent opportunist bacterial infections especially of the upper respiratory tract. In BLS, the underlying cause of Class I deficiency is due to a nonsense mutation in the TAP (Clement et. al., 1988).As discussed earlier, TAP is involved in the precise step of transporting peptides to the inner lumen of ER. In BLS, the deficiencies of active TAP results in the impairment of the transport of peptide to ER. This inefficient transport means that few or no MHC Class I molecules can be complexed with peptides. The un-compl exed MHC Class I molecules are highly unstable and are therefore degraded quickly. This lastly results in low levels of peptide-MHC Class I complex being expressed on the plasma membrane. In this way, deficiency in active TAP leads to low antigen presentation via MHC Class I molecules resulting in inefficient energizing of CD8 T lymphocytes and consequently a compromised immune response.The basis of bare lymphocyte syndrome can be concluded from protein coded genes that are transformed and are not able to control the expression of the MHC I genes. Till today a beneficial treatment of TAP deficiency is not yet lendable gene therapy isnt possible as almost all of the HLA class I molecule express on nucleated cells. If there is damage to the bronchial and pulmonary tissue lung transplantation can be performed. Contact with baccy and smoke should be avoided and also vaccinations should be performed against respiratory pathogens. Other than Bare lymphocyte syndrome, MHC class I allotyp e is also linked to various sero-negative spondarthropathies, such as Ankylosing spondylitis, Psoriatic Arthritis, Reiters Syndrome and Behcets syndrome.